An Empirical Investigation of the Adaptive Nature of Shame

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix CHAPTER I. PROBLEM STATEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 II. LITERATURE REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Definitional History of Shame and Guilt .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Conceptualizations of Shame and Guilt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Measuring Shame and Guilt: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Measuring Guilt and Shame: The TOSCA Paradigm . . . . . . . 17 Correlational Investigations of Shame and Guilt . . . . . . . . . 18 The Measurement of Shame and Guilt Using the TOSCA . . . . 20 Functional Analyses of Shame and Guilt . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Communication of Shame and Guilt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Evidence for Shame Displays Serving an Appeasement Function. 53 Crosscultural Differences for Shame and Guilt . . . . . . . . . . 63 Summary and Current Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 III. METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Population and Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 IV. RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Reliability and Component Analysis of the Dependent Measure . 78 Manipulation Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Two-Way ANOVA and Condition Comparisons . . . . . . . . . 80 vii Page V. DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Summary and Importance of Present Findings .. . . . . . . . . . 86 Interpretation of Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Implications for Methodology Used to Measure Shame and Guilt. 96 Limitations and Future Research Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Appendix A: Table A1 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Appendix B: Candidate Evaluation Form . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Appendix C: Thesis Script .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Appendix D: Participant Testing Materials .. . . . . . . . . . . 133 Appendix E: Debriefing Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Appendix F: Informed Consent Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154